[Ethnic Chapter] Exploring the Diverse and Harmonious Culture of Buddhist Chanting

Adhering to the principle of "reciting Buddhist scriptures in accordance with local languages and customs," Buddhist chanting has continuously evolved across vast stretches of time and space. The traditions of India Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism each have their own distinct styles. This article provides a brief introduction to the characteristics of chanting in these four traditions.

■ By Lin Chun-Ling (林純綾)

With over two thousand years of dissemination, Buddhism has spread from its motherland of India to various parts of the world. Buddhism has taken root and flourished in many diverse regions, each of which has developed its own local characteristics. Similarly, the ancient tradition of Buddhist chanting has continuously evolved along this journey through time and space. Today, the three major Buddhist traditions have each developed rich and diverse chanting styles, blended with their respective local cultures.

In fact, during his lifetime, in response to India's diverse ethnicities and languages, the Buddha encouraged people to learn and spread the Dharma in their native tongues as well as to chant the teachings in their traditional intonations. The Vinaya-Mātṛkā Sūtra (Vol. 4) explicitly records the Buddha's endorsement of using local languages and intonations. Similarly, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (Vol. 50) reaffirms this stance by advocating the recitation of Buddhist scriptures in accordance with local languages and customs.

As Buddhism spread beyond India, different nations and ethnic groups naturally adhered to the same principle of "adapting to local conditions," thereby developing their own unique styles of Buddhist chanting. This article briefly introduces the characteristics of Buddhist chanting in four major traditions: Indian, Chinese (Han), Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism.
 

Newar Buddhist Chanting: Reviving the Ancient Indian Buddhist Chanting

During the Buddha's lifetime, his teachings were transmitted orally, with almost no written scriptures. At that time, the purpose of Buddhist chanting was to aid in memorizing the Dharma. Unlike the prose-style chantings of Chinese Buddhism that begin with "Thus have I heard: at one time the Buddha was in...," Indian Buddhist chantings were composed in poetic form. The strict metrical structure of this poetry made it far easier to commit the teachings to memory.

Long-term researcher of Buddhist chanting, scholar Lai Xin-Chuan, explains that Indian poetry follows a strict metrical structure, whereas Sanskrit incorporates three distinct tones—high, low, and flat. The interplay between these tones and the poetic meter gives rise to the unique melodic style of Indian Buddhist chantings. However, due to the later decline of Buddhism in its homeland, the Newar people of Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley remain the only ethnic group still preserving this ancient Indian chanting tradition. They also safeguard the world's only surviving Sanskrit liturgical texts that are still actively used today.

In Newar Buddhism, relatively lengthy scriptures are chanted in poetic form, characterized by repetitive melodies. After completing a section, the same melodic pattern is repeated for subsequent verses, creating a strong musical cadence. This reflects the ancient Indian cultural affinity for lyrical expression and music.

Japanese and Korean Buddhist Chanting: Preserving Chinese Influences

Within the Chinese Buddhist cultural sphere, Chinese Buddhist chanting not only developed its own distinct Han characteristics, but also profoundly influenced the chanting traditions of Japan and Korea as Buddhism spread to these regions.

For instance, Japan's Tendai sect still preserves the tradition of chanting Yushan Shenming (note 1),  an early form of Chinese Buddhist chanting. This ancient style, no longer heard in China today, survives only in Japan. Moreover, Yushan Shenming had a significant impact on Japanese classical music, including the renowned Noh theater, whose melodies trace their origins to this early Chinese Buddhist chanting tradition.

As for Korean Buddhist chanting, a glance at their liturgical texts reveals a striking feature: the verses are composed entirely in regulated five- and seven-character classical poetry , without prose-style hymns like Luxiang Zan (爐香讚), which is a staple in Chinese liturgical texts. 

"This is the hallmark of Korean Buddhist chanting—they chant pure sutras," explains scholar Lai Xin-Chuan. He notes that the literary style of Luxiang Zan resembles ci poetry (lyrical poetry) of the Song Dynasty or qu verse (dramatic songs) of the Yuan Dynasty, although its exact origins remain debated. Before the emergence of such prose hymns, Chinese Buddhist chanting consisted solely of metrical verse—just like Korean chanting today. Thus, both Japan's Yushan Shenming and Korea's meticulously structured chanting texts preserve early Chinese Buddhist chanting traditions.

Theravada Buddhist Chanting: Integration with Meditation Practice

Theravada Buddhist chanting traditions can be divided into two main systems. One system, represented by countries such as Myanmar and Thailand, emphasizes straightforward recitation rather than melodic singing. Scholar Lai Xin-Chuan explains that Thai monks consider singing to be against the precepts, and therefore embellished musical ornamentation are avoided. As a result, they adopt a plain, unadorned style, reciting scriptures in a simple and direct manner.

The other system is represented by Sri Lanka and features numerous semitones with strong Indian musical influences, chanting Pali verses in poetic form. This style places particular emphasis on precise articulation, as practitioners believe that chanting should be actively performed rather than passively heard. Through active chanting, the sound becomes connected with the chanter’s heart, thereby helping to focus the mind and eliminate mental distractions.

One distinctive feature of Theravada Buddhist chanting, as compared to Chinese Buddhist traditions, is its integration with the practice of samatha-vipassanā (calm and insight meditation); as such, sitting meditation is often incorporated into chanting rituals.

Lai emphasizes, however, that meditation remains fundamental across all Buddhist traditions—whether Theravada, Mahayana or Vajrayana. The ultimate purpose of chanting is to cultivate dhyana (meditative concentration). He notes that even in Chinese Buddhist practices such as the Great Compassion Repentance (Dabei Chan), sitting meditation was originally an integral part of the complete ritual. However, over time, due to practical constraints—such as increased monastic workloads and responsibilities—it has gradually been omitted from the ceremony. Nonetheless, the emphasis on meditation continues to be upheld throughout the Buddhist world.

Tibetan Buddhist Chanting: The Profound Sound of Tantra

Though Tibetan Buddhism shares the Mahayana tradition with Chinese Buddhism, its development on the isolated Tibetan Plateau and its integration with the indigenous Bon religion have given it a distinctive regional and ethnic character—reflected as well in its unique chanting tradition.

Ethnomusicologist Lü Bingchuan observed that "Tibetans possess an exceptional sensitivity to low-frequency sounds." This innate sensitivity is reflected in the most striking feature of Tibetan Buddhist chanting: deep, resonant vocalizations. Monks employ extraordinary low-frequency throat singing, in which overlapping voices produce unique harmonic vibrations and overtones—powerfully penetrating and awe-inspiring. Such unique sounds are known as the "Profound Sound of Tantra."

This "Profound Sound of Tantra" chanting typically begins with a startling vocalization—especially when the chant master intones the opening phrase and the monastic assembly responds in unison, first with emphatic force, then gradually softening into a steady rhythm. This sonic intensity serves a spiritual purpose: to jolt practitioners into alertness and refocus their minds on diligent practice.

From this, we can see that while Tibet's low-frequency chanting is unique within global Buddhism, its methodology transcends mere cultural adaptation. Its ultimate aim is to return practitioners to the essence of religious practice—a universal principle shared across all schools of Buddhism.

Note 1: In Japanese Buddhism, Buddhist chanting is known as shōmyō (聲明).


Buddhist Chanting — Awakening Our Innate Buddha-Nature through Sound

[Ethnic Chapter] Exploring the Diverse and Harmonious Culture of Buddhist Chanting

Ethnic Series BOX: What You Should Know about Chinese Buddhist Chanting

[Society] Buddhist music and online Buddhist chants

[Practical Guide] Q&As of Buddhist Chanting

Practical Box: Tips for Buddhist Chanting 


Resource: Issue 298 of Humanity Magazine, Dharma Drum Publishing Corporation
Photos: Provided by 賴信川, photographed by 張錦德 and 李蓉生.
Translation: Denise 
Editing: Keith Brown, 演香法師 (Venerable Yan Hsiang)